A Lab-On-a-Chip (LOC) device allows for multiple laboratory-based analytical techniques to be miniaturized by incorporating microfluidic methodology. Microfluidics involves the manipulation of fluids within channels on a micrometer scale.2
LOCs, also known as micro physiological systems or tissue chips (Fig. 1), are used to model tissues and organs by simulating physiological and pathological tissue components and arrangement, structural composition, and dynamic components (gas, blood, force, etc.).3 These chips are designed to position cells in a three-dimensional structure that mimic the function of organs of the body, and react in a physiological manner to exposure to drugs, hormones, cell signaling molecules and biomechanical stressors.4
The drug development pipeline has well-documented high failure rates and is expensive and time-consuming. When a drug reaches the clinical trials stage, the probability of clinical success is around only 12%.5 The ability to recreate functional human (and animal) organs in vitro has transformed the drug discovery process, and opened new avenues for the study of physiology and disease pathology in both humans and animals.4
Microfluidics has gained significant attention in the field of drug testing due to its numerous applications and advantages. One key area where microfluidics is extensively utilized is in drug toxicity testing, offering high-throughput capabilities. Furthermore, microfluidic devices have been successfully employed in cancer diagnosis, metastasis studies, drug delivery, and tissue engineering within the biomedical field.6-8 Herein, we review a few examples where microfluidics has been applied to drug testing/development.
The screening of compounds in drug development is essential for narrowing down the selection of molecules to “hit” and “lead” compounds. Initially, high-throughput methods using simple 2D cellular models are employed to assess toxicity and eliminate obviously toxic compounds.4 2D cell culture and animal models exhibit limited predictability for drug discovery, and therefore, there is an urgent need to find better models for efficient and reproducible drug screening. On the other hand, the ethical rules governing the experiments involving laboratory animals became more and more restrictive, limiting the in vivo preclinical analysis extent.10
As the development pipeline progresses, more complex three-dimensional organ systems can provide valuable insights, especially for drugs with borderline toxicity profiles. These systems offer a more comprehensive understanding of the interactions between different tissue types and can provide physiologically relevant outcomes for compounds of interest.4
Microfluidic LOCs have the potential to be used as drug testing platforms, to model various diseases, to understand different cellular and molecular mechanisms, or for biomarker identification, with the eventual aim of replacing animals in preclinical tests.10
The study by Deng et al. aimed to develop a microfluidic liver model using cell lines to investigate hepatotoxicity resulting from drug-drug interactions (Fig. 3). This research is significant in the field of liver-on-a-chip platforms, which aim to mimic liver functions for various biomedical applications. The use of cell lines in this microfluidic liver model allows for the simulation of liver functions and the study of how drug combinations interact and potentially lead to liver damage. The study likely involved assessing parameters such as cell viability, enzyme activity, or gene expression to evaluate the hepatotoxic effects of different drug combinations. This work contributes to the understanding of how drug-drug interactions can induce hepatotoxicity, providing insights that could aid in predicting and preventing adverse effects in clinical settings.11
Li et.al. presented an innovative approach to evaluating the toxicological effects of anticancer drugs. The study utilized an integrated microchip system to assess the oxygen-dependent cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of anticancer drugs, specifically tirapazamine (TPZ) and bleomycin (BLM). Through single-cell loading, cultivation, drug treatment, and in situ analysis, the researchers demonstrated the application and performance of this microchip system in evaluating the effects of these drugs on cells.14
In a separate study, Madaboosi et al. introduce an innovative approach to detecting prostate cancer biomarkers. The research integrates microfluidic ELISA with a-Si:H p-i-n photodiodes to develop a highly sensitive detection system for prostate cancer biomarkers. This integrated system shows promise for point-of-care applications by detecting a variety of biomarkers for prostate cancer, even at very low levels that are typically difficult to detect using traditional methods. Through the utilization of a sandwich assay in the microfluidic ELISA and photodiode detection, the system can be further improved with suitable amplification strategies to enable the multiplexing of biomarkers for prostate cancer.15
Microfluidics has emerged as a powerful tool for antibiotic susceptibility and toxicity testing (Fig. 5), offering rapid and precise analysis at the single-cell level.17 This technology allows for the investigation of antibiotic susceptibility not only in bulk cultures but also at the single-cell level, providing insights into microbial sensitivity and resistance.18 By utilizing microfluidic platforms, researchers have been able to conduct phenotypic antibiotic susceptibility tests in less than 30 minutes, enabling quick and efficient evaluation of bacterial responses to antibiotics.19 These ‘lab-on-a-chip’ platforms have shown promise in facilitating antibiotic susceptibility and toxicity testing, offering a versatile and adaptable approach for assessing antimicrobial effectiveness.20
Using a Lab-on-a-Chip approach offers the potential for rapid, cost-effective, and portable detection systems in clinical and forensic environments. LOC devices for detection of drugs of abuse is still a rapidly evolving field, with 42% of articles published since 2019. A total of 28 different drugs of abuse were investigated, with cocaine the most widely studied (58%). The LOC devices were capable of accepting a wide range of biological and non-biological samples. A total of 18 countries have been involved in LOC research into detection of drugs of abuse, with locations generally following local trends in drug use. LOC devices employed a range of detection methods with immunoassays most commonly incorporated (34%).2
Microfluidic systems have played a crucial role in advancing drug discovery processes by allowing for more accurate modeling of physiological conditions, facilitating systematic high-volume testing for different aspects of drug development.21 These systems also offer great potential for drug screening in a high-throughput manner through perfusion cell culture.22 Microfluidic platforms have been shown to perform rapid antibiotic susceptibility tests, evaluating the efficacy of antimicrobial drugs efficiently.16
In drug testing applications, microfluidic devices are tailored to replicate the physiological conditions of biological systems, offering a more realistic representation of drug interactions. These systems are equipped with cell culture chambers, perfusion systems, and integrated sensors that enable real-time monitoring of drug responses. Moreover, the miniaturization of these devices facilitates simultaneous testing of multiple drugs or concentrations on a single platform, thereby streamlining processes and reducing costs associated with conventional drug screening methods.
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At the beginning of the third millennium, due to prolonged aging, neurodevelopmental disorders are growing and a much deeper understanding of the brain is necessary.
The liver is involved in more than 300 vital functions, but is mainly known for being part of the digestive tract, where it has the extremely important role of metabolizing both xenobiotics and nutrients (carbohydrates and lipids).
A heart-on-chip is a microfluidic chip reproducing the mechanisms of a heart, in order to test medicine quickly and observe the reaction of heart cells. Great care is given to mimic the mechanics of a heart in an artificial structure, lined with live heart cells.
While many animal models have been used to study lung diseases, they lack sufficient similarity with human systems, leaving gaps in what is possible in animal-based platforms.
It could be extremely interesting to build a human-on-chip that will model the interactions between different organs, but it is also essential to develop simulations of tissue-tissue interfaces and more generally of local organ behavior.
Multi-organs on chip could also allow us to witness the side effects of certain drugs on different organs, not limited to those that the treatment targets.
Since 2012, more and more people, companies or lab, have worked on the organ-on-a-chip. These cell cultures can, thanks to microfluidics, mimic the cells microenvironment of the human body. Thus, these chips could become wonderful search accelerators and we can hope that, in ten years, they could replace the animal testing. Finally, organs on chips could lead us to personalized medicine.
Cell culture consists in growing cells in an artificial environment in order to study their behavior in response to their environment[1]. Different kinds of cell cultures can be found nowadays, and some would be more suited than others depending on its properties and applications.
Organ-on-chip companies developping innovative technologies
Although we take part in various research projects such as artificial photosynthesis, pathogen detection and stem cell differentiation, the ultimate goal of our entrepreneurial adventure is to accelerate anti-aging research.
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